Arsenic Cadmium Lead and Mercury in Sweat a Systematic Review

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• Published: 17 Baronial 2020

Serum and urinary concentrations of arsenic, glucinium, cadmium and pb after an aerobic training menstruation of half-dozen months in aerobic athletes and sedentary people

Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition book 17, Article number:43 (2020) Cite this commodity

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Abstract

Aim

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the possible upshot of a period of 6 months of aerobic physical training on serum and urinary concentrations of arsenic (Every bit), beryllium (Be), cadmium (Cd) and atomic number 82 (Pb), potentially toxic minerals.

Methods

Twenty-four well-trained, long distance runners (AG), were recruited at the starting time of their training period. They had been performing training regularly for the previous ii years, recording an average volume of 120 km per calendar week of rigorous aerobic exercise aimed at loftier-level competitions (1500 and 5000 chiliad race modalities). 20-6 untrained, sedentary participants constituted the command grouping (CG). All participants had been living in the same geographic area for at least 2 years before the commencement of the survey. Serum and urine samples were obtained from each participant at the beginning and at the end of the 6 months of the training programme. The values of each mineral were determined past inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Additionally, the daily intake of each mineral was evaluated at both moments in fourth dimension.

Results

The daily concentrations of trace elements in the diet were like at the get-go and the end of the grooming menses without differences between groups. In serum, meaning differences between groups were observed in Equally, Cd and Lead (p < 0.05). Attention to time effects, a significant departure was obtained in Pb (p < 0.05). In urine, meaning differences between groups were obtained in all minerals (p < 0.05). Co-ordinate to training menses, pregnant differences were observed in As, Be and Pb (p < 0.05). Finally, the group x fourth dimension interaction revealed significant differences in As and Be (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Aerobic training may constitute a possibly effective method for increasing the elimination of Cd and Pb potentially toxic minerals from the body, especially among highly trained individuals.

Introduction

Currently, environmental pollution produced past industries is one of society'southward main concerns. Factories cascade a large amount of maybe toxic metals for the organism, such as Arsenic (As), Berilium (Be), Cadmiun (Cd) or Pb (Pb), into the atmosphere [ane]. These potentially toxic metals, in the air, water or food, tin can produce serious health problems.

Several health issues have been detected because of an abnormal level of As in the water, and dissimilar symptoms of gastrointestinal, dermatological, muscular, cardiovascular and neurological diseases take been observed [2]. Be is a potentially toxic mineral present in all industries around the world. The industrial spill of Be can cause, through inhalation, several pulmonary disorders, included cancer [3]. Cd is another mutual toxic mineral [4], showing severe toxicity in humans, often coming from smoking [v, 6]. The Cd concentration in the organism tin provoke kidney impairment, filibuster in growth, reproductive disorders, hypertension, and fifty-fifty cancer [seven, 8]. Atomic number 82 is used as an industrial element for many processes [9], and this tin can produce contamination in humans. Merely the experts cannot agree on what blood pb values are rubber or unsafe. The effects of Lead on the cardiovascular, reproductive [ten], renal [11] an immune [12] systems are well known; furthermore, bones and teeth can be affected by this element [13], which has been also identified every bit potentially carcinogenic [14]. Finally, a high Pb exposition during life has been associated with Alzheimer's disease [15].

Preventive measures aimed at avoiding or minimizing the toxicity of these elements should go more and more important. In this respect, physical action and training could be an interesting measure out for preventing this toxicity. Previous studies take reported lower concentrations of Cd and Pb in loftier level Castilian athletes than recreational ones [16]. Later, Llerena et al. (2012) found a college urinary excretion of Cd and some other toxic elements in athletes with a high level of training than sedentary people [17]. Recently, Maynar-Mariño et al. (2018) have observed that serum concentrations of potentially toxic metals could be unlike, depending on the type of physical activity [18].. These results have been confirmed by Maynar et al. (2018). The authors have reported changes in potentially toxic trace element values in some biologic fluids, later on an incremental test until exhaustion (serum and urine) [19].

All the same, no studies take been plant almost the effects of a six-month training programme on potentially toxic metal concentrations. In all cases, current information about the long-term effect of continuous physical grooming on the serum or urinary concentrations of essential trace elements is limited and more research is required in this field.

Therefore, the aim of the present study was to notice if athletes (AG) nowadays different concentrations of toxic trace elements (As, Exist, Cd and Pb) with respect to sedentary people (CG) and if at that place are exercise-induced modifications in the serum and urinary concentrations equally a result of a period of 6 months of intense, predominantly aerobic, physical grooming.

Materials and methods

Materials and methods are the aforementioned every bit the ones described previously in Maynar et al., (2019) [20]. Withal, they will be presented again below.

Participants

Fifty men participated in the nowadays study, all living in the same metropolis, Cáceres, Kingdom of spain. Of these, xx-four were Spanish national medium-distance runners (21 ± 4 years), recruited at the start of their training period, who formed the athletes' grouping (AG). All of them had been competing in 1500 and 5000 m race modalities. They had been performing aerobic concrete grooming regularly for the previous 2 years, developing an average volume of 100–120 km per week of rigorous grooming aimed at high-level contest. Their weekly grooming routines consisted of 3–4 days of aerobic continuous running and ii–3 days of aerobic-anaerobic fartlek or intense serial.

The control group (CG) consisted of twenty-half dozen untrained, not-sportsmen (21 ± 3 years), who only had been leading a normal, agile lifestyle. Their physical activities consisted of recreational football, handball or basketball, recording a weekly book of less than 2 h. The anthropometric characteristics of both groups are described in Tabular array 1.

Tabular array 1 Nutritional composition of the diets of both groups at the start and at the end of the survey

Total size table

During the 6 months of the training period, the athletes ran a full of approximately 3500 km in training and competitions, varying the intensities from moderate (aerobic threshold) to high (anaerobic threshold or higher). The training was configured with iii–iv days of continuous running or fartlek and two–three days of more than intense serial, depending on whether there was a contest over the weekend. Low intensity, regenerative exercise was performed the day subsequently a contest. The CG continued with their normal daily activities during the whole experimental period. None of the controls followed any specific physical preparation plan.

A GPS pack equipped with pulsometers (Polar M430. Norway) was used to track the training loads during the survey. The GPS were lent to the sportsmen at the start of the survey and the researchers recorded and analyzed their training routines every calendar week.

All the participants had been living in the same city (Cáceres, Spain) for at least 2 years. The present study was approved past the bioethics committee of the University of Extremadura co-ordinate to the Helsinki Declaration ethic guidelines of 1975, updated at the World Medical Association Assembly in Fortaleza 2013, for investigations involving human being subjects. All the participants were explained the purpose of the study and written their informed consent.

Anthropometric measurement

The morphological characteristics of the participants were measured in the morning time and always at the same time and under identical conditions. Trunk top was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using a wall-mounted stadiometer (Seca 220. Hamburg. Germany). Body weight was measured to the nearest 0.01 kg using calibrated electronic digital scales (Seca 769. Hamburg. Germany) in nude, barefoot conditions. Sum of six skinfolds (∑vi) (abdominal, suprailiac, tricipital, subscapular, thigh and calf skinfolds) were measured. Skinfold thicknesses were measured with a Harpenden caliper (Holtain Skinfold Caliper. Crosswell, United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland). All measurements were made by the aforementioned operator, skilled in kinanthropometric techniques, in accordance with the International Club for the Advocacy of Kinanthropometry recommendations [21]. Heart rate and blood pressure were determined using an automatic sphygmomanometer (Omron HEM-780. Osaka. Nihon) by a skilled technician, always afterward a 5-minute rest period in a supine position.

Nutritional evaluation

All participants completed a dietary questionnaire in order to ensure that they were not taking any vitamins, minerals or other supplements and in order to guarantee that they were post-obit a similar nutrition. The questionnaire consisted of a 3-day, daily nutritional record, filled out on 2 pre-assigned weekdays and on i weekend day.

On each day, all participants recorded the amount (in grams) of each nutrient consumed in every meal ingested on every 1 of the three days. Once completed, every questionnaire compiled the full amount of each food consumed, grouped by meals. And so the nutritional composition of their diets was evaluated using different food composition tables [22,23,24]. These tables comprise nutritional data about all kinds of foods. The nutritional questionnaires were practical at the commencement and at the cease of the written report menstruation. None of the participants followed a specific diet, nutritional plan or specific supplementation during the whole survey. All of them were allowed to hydrate freely during the written report.

Maximal exercise test until exhaustion

An do test was used to evaluate the functioning variables for each participant. The test consisted of running on a treadmill (Powerjoc. Great britain) until voluntary exhaustion. The ergospirometric and cardiovascular variables were measured using a gas analyzer (Metamax. Cortex Biophysik. Gmbh. Germany) and a Polar pulsometer (Polar M430. Norway). To guarantee a warm-upwards phase before the test, all participants ran progressively for xv min, ending at the initial speed of the examination. So, the participants performed the exercise test. The CG participants performed 5 min at vi km/h, 5 min at 7 km/h and 5 min at 8 km/h to ensure a proper warm-up phase. Athletes ran at viii, 9 and ten km/h respectively. The participants then performed the do test. The protocol consisted in running incrementally in stages, until voluntary exhaustion (no possibility of continuing to run) starting at an initial speed of 8 km/h for controls and ten km/h for athletes and increasing the speed by one km/h every 400 m, with a stable slope of one%. The anaerobic threshold was determined using the triphasic model described past Skinner and McLellan using the ventilatory parameters [25]. This test was used to run a sufficient distance in guild to attain the same physiological changes which should be expected to occur in a field test. All tests were performed in the morning (betwixt 10 and 12 a.g.). Training intensity and volume were reduced the two previous days applying a regenerative load in order to avoid fatigue in the physical tests. The exercise tests were performed at the beginning and at the end of the experimental flow, with the fourth dimension and conditions beingness the same for each participant.

Sample collection

Samples were collected after a fasting period of 8 h. At ix o'clock in the morning 5 mL of venous blood were drawn from each participant using a plastic syringe fitted with a stainless-steel needle. The claret samples were nerveless in a metal-gratis polypropylene tube (previously washed with diluted nitric acrid). Then, the blood samples were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 min at room temperature to dissever the serum. Once isolated, the serum was aliquoted into an Eppendorf tube (previously washed with diluted nitric acrid) and was conserved at − fourscore °C until farther analysis. Morning midstream urine samples were obtained from all subjects and were collected in polyethylene tubes previously washed with diluted nitric acrid and frozen at − 80 °C until analysis. Prior to analysis, the samples were thawed and homogenized by shaking. This protocol was applied at the beginning and at the cease of the experimental menstruum.

Experimental design

Urinary creatinine determination

Creatinine concentrations were measured, in duplicate, in all urine samples to determine unlike dilution degrees [26], using Sigma'due south Creatinine 555–A kit and a UNICAM 5625 spectrophotometer.

Serum and urinary trace element determination

Sample preparation

As, Be, Cd and Pb analyses were performed past inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). To ready the analysis, the organic matrix was decomposed by heating information technology for 10 h at xc °C after the addition of 0.eight mL HNO_iii and 0.4 mL H_twoO₂ to ii mL of serum or urine samples. The samples were and so dried at 200 °C on a hot plate. Sample reconstitution was carried out past adding 0.5 mL of nitric acid, 10 μL of Indium (In) (x mg/L) equally the internal standard, and ultrapure water to complete 10 mL.

Standard and reference cloth preparation

Reagent blanks, chemical element standards and certified reference material (Seronorm, lot 0511545, AS Billingstand, Norway) were prepared identically, and used for accuracy testing. Before the analysis, the commercial control materials were diluted according to the recommendation of the manufacturer.

Sample analysis

Digested solutions were assayed with an ICP-MS Nexion model 300D (PerkinElmer, Inc., Shelton, CT, USA) equipped with a triple quadrupole mass detector and a reaction cell/collision device that allows operation in iii modes: without reaction gas (STD); by kinetic energy bigotry (KED) with helium equally the collision gas; and in reaction manner (DRC) with ammonia as the reaction gas. Both collision and reaction gases such as plasmatic argon had a purity of 99.999% and were supplied past Praxair (Madrid, Spain). Two mass menstruation controllers regulated gas flows. The frequency of the generator was free-swinging and worked at 40 Mhz. Iii replicates were analyzed per sample. The sample quantifications were performed with indium (In) as the internal standard. The values of the standard materials of each element (10 μg/50) used for quality controls were in agreement with intra and inter-assay variation coefficients of less than 5%.

Statistical evaluations

Statistical analyses were carried out with IBM SPSS Statistics 22.0 for Windows. The results are expressed as means ± standard deviations. Normality was tested with the Shapiro-Wilk test. A 2-mode ANOVA was used to evidence differences between study variables. The level of significance was fix at p < 0.05.

Results

Nutritional evaluations

Tabular array 1 presents the results of the nutritional analysis of the participants' diets.

None of the participants followed whatever special nutrition like, for example, vegetarian or vegan. The simply significant difference was observed between groups in kilocalorie intake (p < 0.05). At that place were no significant differences in mineral intake.

Anthropometric and ergospirometric characteristics of participants

Table 2 shows the anthropometric and ergospirometric data on athletes and controls.

Table 2 Anthropometric and ergospirometric results of controls and athletes at the start and end of the study period

Full size tabular array

When examining the group issue, meaning differences were observed in total weight, ∑six skinfolds, resting HR, VO₂ max and VE max (p < 0.01). Attending to fourth dimension event and group x time interaction, no significant differences were observed.

Serum concentrations of metals

Figure 1 shows the serum concentrations of each metal at the beginning and at the cease of the training flow in both groups.

Fig. 1

Serum concentrations of toxic mineral in controls and athletes at the start and the finish of the 6 months of the study; a = As; b = Exist =c = Cd; d = Atomic number 82; Every bit = arsenic; Be = beryllium; Cd = cadmium; Pb = lead; AG: athletes group; CG: control group

Total size prototype

Pregnant differences were observed between groups, with higher values of Equally, Cd, Lead in AG (p < 0.05). Attending to time issue, a significant difference in Pb was observed (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in the group x time interaction.

Urinary concentrations of metals

Effigy 2 shows the urinary concentrations of each metallic in both groups at the start and at the end of the grooming flow. The results are expressed with creatinine corrections (in μg/g creatinine).

Fig. two

Urinary concentrations of toxic minerals in controls and athletes at the start and the end of the half-dozen months of the study; a = As; b = Be =c = Cd; d = Pb; As = arsenic; Exist = beryllium; Cd = cadmium; Pb = pb; AG: athletes group; CG: command grouping

Total size paradigm

When examining the grouping result, pregnant differences were observed in the urinary excretion of all minerals (p < 0.05). Co-ordinate to the training flow, significant differences were obtained in As, Be and Pb (p < 0.05). Finally, in the group x time interaction pregnant differences were observed in Every bit and Exist (p < 0.05).

Give-and-take

The aim of the present study was to observe the possible differences in toxic metal concentrations between athletes and sedentary people, in serum and urine. As well, we tried to decide the furnishings of 6 months of physical training, predominantly aerobic, on these values.

Typically, centre and long distance runners perform a high book of kilometers to better their endurance capacity, and to get excellent results in competition [27]. This writer affirms that the clear relationship between preparation load and performance encourages athletes to attempt progressively heavier training loads in the quest for the small (< 2%) improvements in functioning that produce competitive results at the highest levels. This training load produces pregnant changes in metabolism, and a diminution in total weight and fat per centum.

Moreover, nutritional intake is another of import parameter to control, because food is one of the sources of exposure to these toxic elements [22]. Our results showed a similar estimated intake in all toxic minerals analyzed (Table 1). However, the AG had a higher total energy intake than CG (p < 0.05).

Offset, all the serum and urinary concentrations of toxic metals obtained in this report were in the normal range, so that none of the subjects presented a health risk [28, 29]. Creatinine production is proportional to the muscle mass of the private and in the absence of whatever renal pathology, creatinine excretion rates are constant, and not modified by concrete practice or by variations in catabolism. This is essential because overestimations of mineral values may occur if the urine is at a high concentration [30].

All participants lived in the same region and were the same age, this helped to avert several factors which could take influenced the results. The results showed significant differences between groups in serum values of Every bit, Cd and Pb, with a higher concentration in AG (p < 0.05). The loftier level of training in athletes could provoke an excess by inhaling more than air, drinking more water, or eating more food. In this style, an increase could be possible in toxic metals ingested [18]. Previous studies take reported a high probability of sportsmen presenting college serum concentrations of Pb than sedentary individuals, because of pollution [31]. In relation to fourth dimension event, the ANOVA showed significant differences in Atomic number 82 (p < 0.05), similar to those previously obtained [32].

Bartolomé et al. (2016) obtained similar results in the urinary excretion of As afterward a paddle match [33]. As well, Maynar et al. (2018) reported a ascension in serum and a decrease in urine concentrations of this element after an incremental exercise examination [19]. A contempo report reported higher As erythrocyte levels in highly trained athletes [34]. Thus, wellness problems are linked to abnormally high Every bit levels in h2o [2]. The results of this inquiry propose that highly trained athletes living in areas with a loftier concentration of As in the h2o could be at risk of health disorders that could affect their sport performance.

On the other hand, no changes in serum Be were found, simply a driblet was observed in the excretion in urine. Be acts as an inhibitor of various enzymes related to physical action, such as glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) or cyclin-dependent protein kinase (cdc2) [35]. This could decrease post-training Mg bioavailability [36]. Besides, the mentioned enzymes could bind Exist instead of Mg. This phenomenon could be the reason for Exist urine concentrations falling after grooming. Parallel to these findings, recent research establish a subtract in urine Be levels after an exercise test until exhaustion in athletes (Maynar et al., 2018). Thus, a training induced adaptation process in the organism could arm-twist a decrease in the urinary excretion of Be.

Regarding the Cd results, college serum concentrations and urinary excretion were found in AG than CG. The master effect was observed between groups. Grijota et al. (2019) reported lower Cd concentrations in sportsmen's erythrocytes [34]. In add-on, the decreased serum Cd obtained in this survey among AG participants afterward the training menstruation is similar to that observed past Kara (2012). This author noted a significant decrease in serum Cd subsequently 3 months of football preparation in immature boys [37]. Information technology has been reported that concrete exercise produces a trace element redistribution among different tissues in the organism, which could explain the decreased serum values [38]. In the same manner, it has been reported that Cd could be excreted in sweat, fifty-fifty more than in urine [39, 40]. This excretion by sweating could be a preventive response of the organism confronting Cd toxicity.

Furthermore, previous studies constitute a significant increase in Cd excretion after an practice until exhaustion [19], and a higher urinary concentration in athletes with respect to the command group [17]. In this respect, major excretion could be expected after six months of concrete preparation, just no time effect was observed. In addition, the relevant role of the kidney in the organic regulation of toxic elements could cause an adaptive process to perform these functions [41]. Large concentrations of this element could cause hepatic and renal damage [42], in the worst cases, some months, or even years, being necessary to accomplish its excretion, producing some wellness disorders [43]. Finally, the increased excretion of Cd later 6 months of physical grooming, could exist the organism's response to improve the elimination of this toxic metal, avoiding its accumulation. Although more than enquiry is needed, these results could consider exercise every bit a preventive therapy in areas with a high level of pollution.

In relation to Pb, the serum concentration of this element decreased at the end of the training period, and an increase in the urinary excretion was observed. Previous studies in subjects exposed to Pb, reported decreases in blood Pb later aerobic training [32]. In urine, similar results were obtained previously [17]. This could indicate, every bit in the case of Cd, a natural strategy (physical activity) to reduce the Atomic number 82 levels in the body, particularly in industrialized areas or large cities, due to the high amounts of this mineral in the air.

This thought is supported past data obtained past Rodriguez Tuya et al. (1996), who reported significantly lower concentrations of Pb in athletes living in Madrid, compared to moderately trained subjects [16]. These athletes had been training in this metropolis for several years, following a high-volume competitive preparation routine.

Correlations between blood and sweat Atomic number 82 levels take been previously reported [44]. Later on strenuous practise, higher Lead values have been observed in sweat than in urine [45]. In this respect, another investigation showed a significant increase in the excretion of Atomic number 82 by sweating after astute exercise to burnout [46]. Thus, as in the case of Cd, this excretion by sweating could exist a preventive response of the organism against Atomic number 82 toxicity [xix].

Some limitations of the study should be noted. First, we did not accept into account the possible differences between organic and non-organic food intake, and filtration of water betwixt groups. 2nd, we are not able to provide data about water analysis, because of the values of toxic metals were under the limit of detection. Nevertheless, the exposures (air, water, food source, etc.) were similar during this observation period. Finally, futures research should explore the content in tissues, such equally adipose, for a more stable assessment of levels in vivo.

Conclusions

Six months of an aerobic training program produced an increase in the urinary excretion of Cd, suggesting a response of the organism to avoid the accumulation of this potentially toxic element in body cells.

Also, this program induced a decrease in serum values of Pb, accompanied past an increased excretion in urine of this chemical element, in society to reduce its concentration in the body.

The results study that aerobic concrete grooming can be an efficient method for removing some potentially toxic trace elements such equally Cd and Pb, a fact that is very important for preventing the exposition caused in people living in industrial areas. More than studies are needed in social club to investigate the potential benefits of concrete do on the excretion of potentially toxic metals by the organism, including loss from sweating.

Availability of information and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Alter history

• fourteen Apr 2021

  A Correction to this newspaper has been published: https://doi.org/ten.1186/s12970-021-00429-1

Abbreviations

As:

Arsenic

AG:

Athletes grouping

Be:

Beryllium

CG:

Command Group

Cd:

Cadmium

Pb:

Pb

Mg:

Magnesium

Km:

Kilometer

Mg:

Milligrams

mL:

Milliliter

L:

Liter

ICP-MS:

Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry

GPS:

Global Positioning Organisation

Rpm:

Revolutions per minute

HNO_iii :

Nitric Acid

H₂O₂ :

Hydrogen Peroxide

Σ6:

Sum of vi skinfolds

Hour:

Heart Rate

VO₂ :

Oxygen Consumption

VE:

Pulmonary Ventilation

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Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the collaboration of SAIUex.

The research was conducted in the laboratory of Physiology of the School of Sport Sciences (Academy of Extremadura).

Funding

No funding was received.

Author data

Affiliations

1. Sport Sciences Faculty, University of Extremadura, Avenida de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Cáceres, Spain

   Diego Muñoz, Ignacio Bartolomé, Jesús Siquier-Coll, Víctor Toro-Román & Marcos Maynar

2. Education Kinesthesia, University of Extremadura, Avenida de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Cáceres, Kingdom of spain

   Francisco J. Grijota

Contributions

MM designed the study; data were collected and analyzed by MM, JS-C, F-JG and DM;

DM, VT, and IB undertook data estimation and manuscript preparation. All authors approved the concluding version of the paper.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Diego Muñoz.

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Ethics approval and consent to participate

This research was carried out according to the Helsinki Announcement ethic guidelines, updated at the World Medical Associates in Fortaleza in 2013, for enquiry with homo subjects. All the participants were informed almost the purpose of the study and gave their voluntary signed informed consent.

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Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Muñoz, D., Grijota, F.J., Bartolomé, I. et al. Serum and urinary concentrations of arsenic, beryllium, cadmium and lead afterward an aerobic training period of vi months in aerobic athletes and sedentary people. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 17, 43 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-020-00372-7

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• Received: 11 May 2020

• Accepted: 06 August 2020

• Published: 17 August 2020

• DOI : https://doi.org/x.1186/s12970-020-00372-7

Keywords

• Toxic metals
• Practice
• Excretion
• Blood

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